Maharanishri Nandkuvarba Mahila Arts And Commerce college
Name: Rathod Sayna Asifbhai
Subject: IKS
Main Subject: English
Date: 10/9/2025
Home Assignment:🌸
The theory of Dhvani in the field of Indian Poetics is not only a contribution to Sanskrit
language, but also to the Universal rhetoric and aesthetics. The theme of aesthetics is been
inherited through the Natya Shastra of Bharata and has been discussed by many scholars in their
works and propounded different theories too. Along with the Rasa theory of Bharata we can
name such six more theories which are been originated and propagated by different authors.
They are (1) Alankara school of Bamaha and Udbhata, (2) The Guna school of Dandi (though
Dandi has not specially said, but his focus was more on Guna) (3) The Riti School of Vamana,
(4) The Dhvani school of Ananda Vardhana (5) The Vakrokti school of Kuntaka and (6) The
Auchitya school of Kshemendra. Among them Ananda Vardhana occupied a very important
place, whose views have been revealed the subtleties of great poems like Ramayana,
Mahabharata and opened the minds of the authors on poetics. Almost all the authors on poetics
talked directly or indirectly about the both Sabda (sound) and Artha (meaning) constitute the
Kavya Sarira – the body of poem. These words and their bmeaning should be free from
blemishes (Dosas). When Dandi coined Padavali – the group of words by itself is taken as Sarira
only and meaning which is accompanied with great merit adds embellishment to poetry; the
quest for the soul of Kavya has started. If the inner meaning of the poetry is suggestive,
figurative and expressive then it leads evoking the desired Rasa. Vamana is the first one to coin
this inner meaning as Atma – the soul of poetry as Riti – the style, from then onwards
Alankarikas started phrasing the term Atma in their works, Anandvardhana said Dhvani is the
Atma of Kavya, Viswanatha said Rasa is the Atma, Kuntaka said Vakrokti, Kshemendra asserted
that Auchitya is the life of Kavya. Thus there was vast divergence in the opinions of rhetoricians.
They are divided Pre-Dhvani school (Pracina School) of Bamaha, Dandi, Vamana and others
who focused on Alankara (figures of speech) as they are, linger around word and its meaning
(Sabdalankaras and Arthalankaras). Anandavardhana with his theory of Dhvani pointed out that
the reader should go beyond the meaning to capture the suggested or hinted meaning. This new
school of thought (Navina School) has completely changed the trend of later rhetoricians. Sabda
and Artha which one directly expressed (Vachya) but a Sahrudaya ( a Sympathetic critic or a
responsive reader, man of taste) gets delighted by grasping the suggested essence –the Rasa through Vyangya. The epoch making work of Anandavardhana – the Dhvanyaloka makes an
attempt to study poetics from the aesthetics point of view, by giving prominence to Rasa.
The author of Dhvanyaloka Anandavardhana lived approximately in the 9th century AD,
shows great erudition and critical insight in his work. It was written in lucid from and with
originality. Dhvanyaloka is divided into four Udhyotas and written in three parts – the Karika,
Vritti and examples. Often the prose explanation (Vritti) is at great length, and examples are
taken from Prakrit texts and from earlier eminent poets. Abhinavagupta wrote an extensive
commentary ‘Locana’ which is compared as eye to look into Dhvanyaloka.
Contents of the text Dhvanayaloka:
In the first Udhyota Anandavardhana establishes his theory that Dhvani – suggestion is the
soul of poetry. He refers to three different views of those who are against the doctrine of Dhvani-
(1) Dhvanyabhavavaadins likesome saying that Dhvani does not exist, (2) Bhaktavaadins_some
regard that it is included in Lakshana, and . (3) Anirvachaniyatavaadins
– others speak its essence as lying beyond the scope of words which is known only to the men
of literary taste. The beautiful idea of poetry is of two types expressed (Vacya) and implied
(Pratiyamana). The expressed meaning is known to all in the form of Alankaras (the figures of
speech). The implied or suggested sense is something like the distinct charm in the ladies other
than the beauty of the various limbs of the body. The implied sense is quite different than the
literal meaning and not just merely on its parts and exists in the poetry of great poets.
The Pratiyamanartha – implicit aspect cannot be understood by the people who merely know
grammar and lexicon but it can be understood by men who are the admirers of poetry. The
suggested sense is principal element in poetry. When suggested sense, is prominent it is called
Dhvani Kavya. In all good poetry Dhvani is found as important element. Such poetry in which
the sound and its explicit meaning become subordinate and implicit meaning embraces various
divisions such as the bare idea, figures of speech and sentiment is called the highest type of
poetry. In figures of speech like Samasokti, Akashepa, Paryayaokti, Slesha, Visheshokti Apahnuti etc there is no Dhvani. Because the Vacya-expliciî/direct /denotative or conventional
meaning in much prominent than the Vyangya – implicit or suggested meaning. This type of
poetry has charm but not as much as Dhvani Kavya, hence called as Gunibhuta Vyangya Kavya.
The implicit aspect/suggested meaning is of three kinds (1) Vastu – the plot, (2) Alankara – the
figures of speech and (3) Rasa – the sentiment and there are many sub-division to these three.
Dhvani is two-fold Avivakshita Vacya where the literal meaning is not intended to be conveyed
hence further extended literal import is needed and Vivakshitanyapara vacya is where literal
import is intended but sub-serves the implied meaning.
He closes the first Udhyata by clearing all objections of the people who are anti-Dhvani theory
with all illustrations. He shows Dhvani is neither identical with Bhakti (Lakshna) the secondary
meaning nor is incapable of defining and illustrated.
In the second Udhyota he deals with sub varieties of Avivakshita vacya in to Arthantara
Sankramita and Atyanta tiraskrita and gives examples of each. He divides Vivakshitanyapar
vacya into Asmlakshya Kramavyangya and samlakshyakramavyangs. The Asmlakshya
Kramavyangya which can be considered as Rasadhvani is constituted by Rasa, Bhava, Rasabhasa
and Bhavabhasa and Bhavaprashana and others are subordinate, and also the difference between
Gunas and Alankaras, sub divisions of Samlakshya Kramavyangya into Sabdaskti moola and
Asthashakti moola, sub division of Arthashaktimoola into vastu and Alankara and etc were
discussed with suitable examples of Alankara Dhvani.
III Udhyota is dealt with sub-divisions of Dhvani based upon Vyanjaka, Padaprakasha, Vakya
Prakasha, three kinds of Sanghatana and how it depends upon its appropriations of speaker, the
Sense, the Plot and Rasa. How is Rasa is manifested, sustained and how Alankaras become
suitable to evoke Rasa, the things that are opposed to arouse the Rasa, the importance of five
stages (Mukha, Pratimukha, Garbha, Avamarsha and Nirvhana to lead Rasa manifestation, light
on how the establishment of Shanta the Rasa , varieties of Kavyas like Gunibhuta, Chitra, and
Dhvani due to the poets Pratibha IV Udhyota elaborates the fresh aspects in the domain of Dhvani, and Gunibhuta how the
same idea can appear new with poet’s imaginations, his concern about Rasa, Karuna Rasa in
Ramayana and Shanta Rasa in Shastra Kavya Mahabharata, as the principal Rasas , establishing
the province of poetry is unlimited though hundreds of poets composing hundreds of works
continuously. There is no dearth of good quality of poetry for the imagination of poet, the same
thought, same idea can be suggested in a number of ways with charming expressions.
Definition of the Dhvani Kavya:
Dhvani kavya is defined by Anandavardhana as wherein the conventional meaning renders
itself secondary or the conventional word renders its meaning secondary and suggests the
implied or intended meaning is designated as Dhvani or suggestive poetry.
The kind of poetry where the word and its meaning giving up their explicit sense and suggest
only the said implicit meaning is signified by the name Dhvani or suggestive poetry. When the
suggested sense in overtaken by the denoted word and its meaning is considered as Dhvani. Here
Upasargana means ‘being subservient’ i.e. the Vachyartha – the direct or explicit meaning takes
the secondary position, without being prominent, suggested meaning, becomes Pradhaana is the
situation for Dhvani Kavya. By this it is shown how the province of suggestive poetry is quite
distinct from the charm of figures of speech like Upama, Anupasa etc Artha and Sabda
Alankaras.
The suggested sense (the implicit meaning) sometimes will be prohibition but in Vachyartha
explicit meaning in an instruction to do something (Oh! pious man! wander freely, that dog
is killed by the fierce lion that dwells on the banks of Godavari river)
Here, the lady who use to meet her lover on the banks of river Godavari, is getting hesitant
when the pious man is coming to bathe. She explicitly say that he can roam freely, but actually
the man who is scared of dog, how can be move when the lion is there. Thus explicitly she says he can go around but the suggestive (intended) is he should not go there. Thus she makes her
privacy unhindered.
Sometimes the explicit meaning is prohibition but implicit meaning is permitting to do as
desired .For example in the sloka from Gathasaptashati (Oh! traveler! blinded by night do not
tumble into our beds as my mother-in-law sleeps here and I sleep here. Before dark itself you
make a mark.)
Here, the speaker is a woman of loose morals, gives a veiled invitation to the traveler to her
bed. The suggestive meaning (Vyangyartha) is welcome but explicit meaning is prohibition.
Thus the province of Vasthudhwani is established by Anandavardhana in the Ist Udhyota.
Dhvanyabhaavavaada Khandana-Refuting the objections of those who deny the existence of
Dhvani:
As already pointed there are mainly three sets of people who disapprove the existence of
Dhvani. The Abhavavaadins make three types of arguments. The first is what is new in Dhvani
when the beautifying factors are already existing and acknowledged also .the second argument is
vagvikalps they outright rejected the existence of Dhvani as the major concepts that have been
put forth by the previous critics which is called Prasiddhaprasthana going against the well-known
path will not add anything new and it would fail to win the acceptance of learned. The third
argument is there is nothing like Dhvani because it can be a new name for the old beauty may be
an insignificant element left un explained for that people need not dance as if they found a new
discovery therefore Dasani is nothing but a fabricatin. Anandavardhana refuted the objection of
anti- Dhvani is being shown fallacious through the number of illustrations. Suggestion is possible
only when the suggested element is exclusively important. For example in Samasokti Alaknara
the explicit meaning alone appears as prominent and charming than the suggested sense hence
becomes secondary to it. In this Sloka the main subjects of description are the night and the
moon. And the behavior of a heroine and that a hero are attributed to them are only secondary.
Such places the intended is not primarily suggested. Hence, the figures of speech, qualities,varieties of diction, style all these can be the limbs of poetry but suggestive poetry cannot be
looked upon as conditioned by its limbs, since its sphere is very extensive. The comprehensive
concept as suggestion with all its divisions and sub-divisions is explained to satisfy the minds of
enthusiastic critics. Though some Alankaras like Paryayakta, Somasokti, and Visheshokti etc.
have suggestive sense but they are not the place for Dhvani, for, the implicit meaning is not
prominent. In those instances Alankara is primary and suggestive sense is secondary.
One more example in Akshepa Alankara, where the chief element is hinting, and to serve the
purpose of conveying specialty, but what expressed is more charming than implicit.
(Twilight is full of love with red colour, the day chases her face to face, but alas! look at the
decree of fate, the twain do never meet)
Here, suggesting idea is the heroine Twilight, must be understood to be advancing to meet her
Lover, the Day; the Day is also passionate Lover in also moving to meet her as it were. Since
both are moving eagerly unable to meet each other. The Saga is continuing. All the beauty of the
verse lies in Vachyartha only but not in the Vyangyartha. Hence explicit aspect is only considered
as primarily intended, not the implicit.
Anandavardhana very clearly declares that Bhakti cannot be Dhvani because of Ativyapti,
Avyapti Dosas of Lakshana definition. Dhvani exists even when there is no hindrance to the
primary meaning, whereas Mukhyarthabhada – where the direct meaning gives up and indicates
through, Lakshna power. The fact that lakshana is grounded on the primary denotative force of
words. Like ‘Ganagayaam Goshah’ (village in the river Ganga) vachyartha –direct meaning is
not applicable .hence we have to take a different meaning that the village is on the banks of river
Ganga and this discrepancy is removed by the Lakshnaartha-secondary meaning. The village
possess the coolness and holiness of Ganga is suggested. Thus Lakshana/Bhakti/Upachara
function only when primary meaning is effected whereas suggestion is solely dependent on
suggestively. Hence suggestion is different, Bhakti is different.Now since Dhvani has been properly defined, explained and illustrated, the argument of
Anirvachaniyata Vaadins is also refuted. Thus Anandavardhana justified the view of the
existence of suggestion and reputed the all the objection raised by Dhavanyabhavavadi’s. (Those
who say suggestion non-existent)
Alankara Dhvani:
The province of Alankara dhvani is proved by Anandavardhana in the second Udhyota in the
illustration of (Upamadhvani-suggested simile) taken from his own work Vishamabanalila.
(The eyes of the heroes will not be so delighted in their beloved’s red-anointed breasts as in
the temples of enemies’ elephants painted in deep red colour).
The third class of the implicit the Rasadhvani is quite distinct from the explicit. The meaning
above is the soul of the poetry. At the sight of the separation of the Kruncha birds, the sorrow of
Valmiki too the form of the poet.
The poetry of great poets is said to have such meaning and it is possible by the extraordinary
genius of the poets. The status of first-rate poets is achieved only by the effective employment of
suggested meaning and suggested expressions and not by mere use of conventional meanings
and conventional words. Though by its own power the word-import responsible for conveying
the sentence-import, just as it escapes notice once its purpose is served. The suggestive sense
suddenly flashed in the perceptive critics when they turn away from the literal meaning.
Classification of Dhvani :
The Dhvani is mainly divided into two fold. 1.Avivakshita Vacya Dhvani. Where the intended
meaning is not implied or not meant . Dhvani with unintended literal import as in – (Three
persons gather flower of gold from the earth the sold, the learned and the one who knows to
serve)The expression Suvarnapursham in the above verse means literally ‘flowers of Gold’ is an
epithet of the earth. The primary meaning is tainted with incompatibility. The earth cannot bear
the gold flowers. Hence the secondary meaning (Lakshana or Bhakti) becomes necessity. The
meaning can be understood as the earth replete with all coveted riches in an abundant measure.
The greatness of three men specified are the hero, the scholar and the servant . Here the
significance is distinct from secondary meaning. This is which designated as Avivakshita Vacya
Dhvani.
The second variety is 2. Vivakshitanyapara Vacya dhvani where the intended meaning is
implied. Dhvani with intended but further extended literal import as in (The quarters are all
painted as it was with excitement, forming a circle as it were, etc. Rama says let us all these
confront me; I shall bear them all as I am Rama, whose heart is adamant to be sure, But, how
will Sita bear with all this. Alas! My beloved queen! be bold! I am separated from you.
Here the word ‘Rama’ carries the suggestive force. The word does not merely denote and
individual’s name as Son of Dasaratha, but conveys the sense that he has all the capacity to bear
any kind of pain. It suggests various qualities of Rama. This is example of Arthantarasankramita
Vachya when suggested, the direct meaning use its individual sense.
Atyantatiraskruta Vacya – where the literal sense is completely set aside and Like in Valmiki
Ramayana Here, this is the description of winter by Rama, in Panchavati, All the charm of the
moon has gone to the Sun, it disappeared now that the orb is enveloped by snow, like a mirror
rendered blind by the breath. The moon’s shine is blocked by the breathed out air. The figurative
use of the word Nishwaasaandha-blined in the verse justify several qualities and completely lost
the literal meaning that the moon is not shining due to the rise of Sun. The word ‘blinded’
contains the suggestion.
The Vivaksshitanyapararacyadhvani can be called as Abhidamoola is further divided into two
types.(1) Asamlakshya Krama-dhavani- where the intended sense is grasped without any apparent
sequence the levels and scheme of realization of implicit sense in unperceivable. This is
constituted by Rasa, Bhava, Rasabhasa, Bhavabhasa, Bhavodaya, Bhavasandhi, Bhava Sabalata
and Bhava Prashama. When these occupy the predominant place in the poem. When sentiment
Rasa and Bhava (emotion) etc. are sub-ordinate and principle meaning in primary there occurs
Rasavadalankara only not Dhvani. For example –
In this verse a lady in her drama prattles with her husband, “since you are cunning, I shall keep
you chained in my arms”. She lovingly rebukes her husband as ‘Ruthless’ etc. implying her
innocence. In the present sloka the sorrow of widowed queens of enemy, those who can meet
their husbands only in dream, is surely pathetic. But the sentiment paths is made sub-ordinate to
the heroism of the king who is praised. Here Karuna Rasa is only an alankara here. Since it
becomes auxiliary it is only Rasavadalankara. Whenever any Rasa is intended by the poet as
primary then it rises to the status of Dhvani.
The Alamkara –figures of speech whose employment is regarded as secondary in
Asamlakshya Krama-dhavani-Suggestive poetry of undiscerned sequentially and serves as the
best vehicle of sentiment that is the place of Dhvani, The painting on the cheeks are faded by the
pressure from the palm of your hand .the nectar like juice of your lips drunk by your sighs. The
tears continuously wetting your breast .OH! Hard hearted one! Anger has become your darling.
Here as the heroine is sitting and shedding with her chin placed the on her palm, the hero is
trying to win her over artfully. While he enjoys the heroine’s consequent state like jealous, anger
etc. And figures like Slesha,Rupaka and Vyatireka flood in poets mind without any effort .This
kind of the poem is kind of expression can easily promote Rasa –the Sentiment. Figures of
speech can beatify only the body of the poem but the principal element of the poetry Rasa can be
derived from the soul- by Dhvani -suggestion alone.
(2) Samlakshya Krama dhvani – where the sequence is apparent, where the stages of
understanding the implicit sense from the explicit is well perceived.The Samlakshydhvani is again divided into 3 types (1) Sabda Shakti Moola dhvani where the
transition is due to the power of words.
When an Alankara is suggested it is Sabdashakti moola of the world dhvani. In Slesha there is
scope for two meanings. The power of the words can convey suggestion like
Meaning related to Hara is that he by whom God of love is destroyed, by whom the very body
of Bali’s enemy was turned into a shaft. Meaning that relates to Hari is He, the unborn, by whom
the Demon of cart was destroyed. Whose body that triumphed over Bali was into a feminine
form changed etc.
(2) Arthashaktimoola dhvani – where the transition is due to the power of meaning, like in
(As the divine sage said this, Parvati standing by the side of her father facing downwards,
counted the petals of toy lotus she held in her hand.
He the idea of counting Lotus petals in conveyed expressly and that primary meaning
subjugate itself in communicating the second idea that is shyness one of the Anubhava of
Sringara Rassa. It is suggested by the power of implication. Unlike the suggestion with
undiscerned sequantiality, here the context, description of situation, passing moods etc. will serve
suggestion.
(3) Ubhaya Shakti moola dhvani – where the transition is due to the power of both Sabda and
Artha (Word and meaning).
The scheme of this classification of Dhvani is very detailed and complicated too.
Anandavardhana himself classifies in various ways as many as into fifty one types. Only a brief
out line is given above.
Types of Poetry According to Anandavardhana the poetry can be classified into three types Chitra Kavya – is
that poetry where there is absolutely no Dhvani-suggestive meaning. It is merely a fact (Vastu)
involves in the usage of figures of speech Gunas etc. embellishments which beautify the
description depending on the embellishment mainly with words or meaning. Again this is
divided into two Sabda chitra kaya and Artha Chitra kavya. This is the lowest order of poem
(Adhama Kavya) as it is bereft of Dhvani.
The second type of Kavya Gunnibhutavyangya Kavya where the predominant element is
ornate description full with the figures of speech, but not completely devoid of suggestive sense.
Though suggestion leads to the charm but takes the secondary place. Since the suggestive
meaning (Vyangya) takes subordinate element (Gunibhoota) of Explicit meaning this is called
Gunibhoota Vyanya Kavya. The Dhvani here is not more beautiful than the expressed sense, the
poetry of subordinate suggestion is considered as intermediary poetry. (Madhyamakavya)
The third variety of poetry is called as Dhvanikavya wherein the suggestions the principal
method. All the beautifiers or embellishments of the expressed sense and the expression exist
with the single purpose of conveying the sentiment is to be regarded as the best suggestive
poetry. The suggested meaning is derived through the explicit meaning. Explicit fact is the means
to implicit meaning. When vacyartha becomes subordinate to Vyangyartha (suggestive meaning)
it is the best poetry – the Dhvanikavya. Suggestive element become primary and direct meaning
becomes just a matter of fact. (Vastu or Alamkara).
The prominent Rasa in Ramayana and Mahabharata:
there are other Rasas like Sringara, Vipralambha Sringara, Vira, Krodha, Adbhuta etc. But all
these are sub-ordinate sentiments (Anga Rasas). As Adikavi Valmiki himself said sorrow has
become sloka-poem. Shoka or sorrow is the permanent mood (Sthayibhava) of Karuna Rasa.
This Karuna Rasa is present in Ramayana throughout hence it is the primary (Angi) Rasa in the
Kavya.
In the entire Mahabharata the prominent Rasa is ‘Shante’ and all the other Rasa’s being Anga
Rasas (sub-ordinate) Though there is no reference to the term Shanta in the Anukromanika (theindex) – the table of contents, it should be understood through Dhvani. In the Anukramanica
there is a quote which says “Lord Vasudeva, the Eternal will be glorified.
“ Here Vasudeva is not the son of Vasudeva, but he is Sanatana – the Eternal. The poem is full
of praise of that Sanatana and he is the main character in Mahabharata. The cessation of desire
disgust, aversion take important aspect in Mahabharata and tranquility of mind is desired
emotion. The whole Kavya shows the importance of worldly pleasures, pains, possessions,
Valour, love etc. and praises the Eternal. Abandoning all these desires is Vairagya -which is the
static emotion Sthayibhava of Shanta Rasa. Hence in Mahabharata Shanta Rasa is the primary
sentiment (Angi Rasa) and all other sentiments are auxiliaries (Anga Rasa).
Conclusion
The minds of Sahridayas go to suggested meaning instantaneously rather than to explicit
meaning. To relish Rasa-sentiment the vibhavas- the settings like moong light, seasons, fragrance
etc. and the Anubhavas-the physical changes like facial expression, body language etc.,
Vyabhichari bhavas like instantaneous reactions like laughing, weeping etc. are not simply
declared. They are depicted to set the mind of the reader and spectator towards the
accomplishment of desired Rasa through Dhvani which is the soul of the poet.
Thus Anandavardhana authoritatively advocates that when the suggestive element is
prominent in the Kavya then it becomes a Dhvanikavya, an Uttama Kavya, and highest kind of
poetry. Modern Scholars like P.V.Kane writes that “The Dhvanyaloka is an epoch-making work
in the history of Alankara literature. It occupies the same position in poetics as Panini’s
Asthadhyayi and Sankaracharya’s commentary on Vedanta.”
Class Assignment:🌸
Kuntak's Vakrokti Theory:🌸
About the Chapter:🌸
This module is about famous Sanskrit rhetorician, literary theorist Kuntaka and his theory of
poetry. He belongs to Vakrokti school of Sanskrit or ancient Indian poetics. This module briefly
talks about Kuntaka, his contemporary theorists, his role in poetics and linguistics. This module
also discusses about famous book, Vakrokti-Jivitam by Kuntaka. In conclusion, this module talks
about Kuntaka’s position in Indian literary theory.
Introduction:🌸
Kuntaka is the originator of the Vakrokti school of Sanskrit literary theory. He came after
Anandvardhan of the 9th century and before Abhinavagupta of the 10th century. His time was
the time of high merit of Indian poetics. Dhananjaya and Rajashekhara were his contemporary
theorists. The theorists who appeared in the time of Kuntaka contributed a lot to what is in
different shape is considered as modern theories of literature and language. In this context,
Ganesh Devy says that Vakrorkti and the Alamkara are two Indian schools which are very close
to two Western schools of thought, formalism and new criticism.
Ganesh Devy commented, “Vakrokti is a theory of poetry which perceives poetry essentially
as terms of the language of its expression. It sees the poetic language as a language of metaphor
and suggestive communication”. Hence, Kuntaka’s contribution in poetic thought is not only the
matter of poetry or literature but it is about understanding the language, language of poetry and
its difference with the language of the common. Kuntaka’s opinions on language of poetry and
overall his study on language makes his position many steps further to the future. He is
considered as one of the early language theorists in India.
Kuntaka and Vakrokti-Jivitam:🌸
Anjalika Mukhopadhyay informs in her Bangla translation of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam that,
the manuscript of Kuntaka’s Vakrokti-Jivitam was appeared as final version with the initiative
and immense work done by Sushil Kumar Dey in 1922. This manuscript was found as
incomplete in four chapters. Some scholars assume this book has its fifth chapter also but it is not
proved yet. Scholars assume that Kuntak was a Kashmiri, because some hints were found in this
regard. It is also assumed that Kunataka was alive in the time between Anandavardhana and
Abhinavagupta. He appeared before Mahimbhatta, as Mahimbhatta mentioned about him in
different Slokas. If Mahimbhatta came in between 1020-1060 then Kuntaka was there in between
1000-1030. Kuntaka never mentioned Abhinavagupta and Abhinavagupta also never mentioned
Kuntaka; though he talked about Vakrokti. It means either they were contemporary to each other
or Kuntaka came after Abhinavagupta. Mahimbhatta, Hemachandra and Bhoja told that Kuntaka
was the author of the Karika and Britti of his Vakrokti-Jivitam, though some scholars have doubt
on this because the style of language found in the Karika and the Britti is completely different.
History of Vakrokti:🌸
The theory of Vakrokti is found even before Kuntaka had made it sophisticated and scientific
with his rare talent. Bhamaha among the theorists who talked about Vakrokti is most ancient.
Kuntaka primarily adopted Bhamaha’s idea of Vakrokti. Rudrat in his Kavyalankara (9th
century) also talked about Vakrokti. Vakrokti was generally perceived as a Shabdalankar only.
But it did not have much significance beyond its significance as Shabdlankar in Bhamaha,
Dandin and Bamana understands.
As an alamkara Vakrokti was very inclusive to Bhamaha. He included all types of alamkara
under the term of Vakrokti. According to Bhamaha Vakrokti is the soul of poetry. The way words
become different from daily conversation and gives pleasure to the mind of the rasika or one who
accomplishes poetry is vakrokti. Bhamaha did not accept Swabhabokti as a type of alamkara. But
Dandin accepted both Swabhavokti and vakrokti as alamkara. He believed poetry means
alamkara. If the daily use of language is reformulated with alamkara it becomes vakrokti and that
vakrokti is led by Slesha. And this is how vakrokti creates beauty in poetry
Sreenivas Rao in his work on Kuntaka and Indian poetics says that “later, Rudrata treats
Vakrokti as a mere play of words or pretended speech”, which means that the word is meant for
one thing and it is understood by the readers as another thing. It happens because of the voice
and modulation of the reader of that particular poem. This difference in voice is known as Kaku,
which according to Rao is ‘peculiar intonation’ (Rao, Sreenivas;). And this changes the meaning
of the word. It also happens for the word having multiple meanings or at least two meanings and
each meaning has its logical implications which is known as Slesha. Rao added that Vamana
observes Vakrokti as an Artha-Alamkara where the hinted meaning of the word or lakshana is
replaced by the similarity or Sadrishya and therefore, to Vamana Vakrokti is nothing but a
metaphor. Hence the Vakrokti as an extended poetic term proposed by Bhamaha and Dandin
appeared as a limited term and a figure of speech only to Rudrata and Vamana. It is Kuntaka who
did the historical study of the theory of Vakrokti and placed it in a very significant theory of
poetry. He made differences between the language of poetry and the language of everyday life
with the reference of Vakrokti. According to him Vakrokti is a distinguishing factor of poetry and
it is one of the basic qualities of poetic language, it makes the composition of words a poem. He
is the true successor of Bhamaha and established Vakrokti as distinctive characteristics of all
alamkaras. His concept of Vakrokti also guides the poet to select the words while composing a
piece of poem. This idea is peculiar to poetry.
What is Vakrokti ?🌸
Kuntaka explains the definition of the term Vakrokti and its genealogical meaning. He mentions
that, “the term Vakrokti is composed of Vakra + Ukti, where the latter (Ukti) derived from
Vac-paribhashane can easily be taken to mean a poetic expression, a clever speech or a pithy
statement. It is however the former component (Vakra) of the term Vakrokti, evoking diverse
shades of meanings and suggestions, that is widely discussed and interpreted in various manners”
(Rao, Sreenivas;) .
Kuntaka, like many other theorists, also accepted the traditional definition of poetry. And this
definition says that the great juxtaposition and interwovenness of the sabda and artha makes a piece poetry. But Kuntaka claimed that this interwoven relation of sabda and artha should have a
quality of Vakrata or Vaichitra. According to him the vakrota or vakrotva is the very quality of
poetry and it brings pleasure in the mind of the reader after or while one is reading the poem.
Vakrota is the very essence of the poetic speech or what is known as Kavyokti and it makes the
life of a poetry what is known as Jivita. And that is why the title of his book is Vakrokti-Jivita, it
is a biography of poetry, the title shows it talks about everything of a poetry. It speaks about the
being and becoming and after life of a poem.
According to him Vakrokti is a matter of Vaidagdhya or intelligence, but not only that, it
depends of the style or how the intelligence will create this matter, therefore he says that the
Vakrokti is Vaidagdhya-bhangi-bhanita (Rao, Sreenivas;). Therefore, the successful creation of
Vakrokti in poetry depends on the talent and skill or craftsmanship of a poet, what is known as
Kavi-Koushala (poetic art). This is how Kuntaka relates the talent, skill or craftsmanship of the
poet to create a successful poem which will be very unique in creating meaning and expression.
Kuntaka’s Vakrokti:🌸
According to Kuntaka Vakrokti is created by “Baidagdhabhangibhanitiruchyate”, which means
a poetic talent with his own creative power creates such attractive subject which being earthly,
sounds heavenly to the rasika or to the readers who has authority to accomplish. Swabhabvokti
defines or represents things or objects as it is there in the world of reality. Kuntaka argues there is
no credit of creating Swabhabokti because it does not bring any uniqueness in the poetic thought
and alamkara also cannot perform its role here in the Swabhabokti. Alamkara makes the object
beautiful by putting the elements which are not there in the object.
Shabda and the Artha make the body of poetry. It can be beautiful with the vakrokti. The
cleverness of words should not cover the beauty of the poem. Tadwidgana, means the group of
scholars who understand poetry will evaluate this highest art of creation of poetry in a poet.
Kuntaka defines poetry by saying that it is “word and sense together enshrined in a style
revealing the artistic creativity of the poet on the one hand and giving delight to the man of taste on the other” (Devy, Ganesh;). This definition of poetry shows that Kuntaka carried the lineage
of knowledge on Indian poetics. The previous thoughts propagated by different schools are
adapted in Kuntaka’s theory on poetry.
He mentions that the meaning is signified and word signifies the meaning. He elaborated his idea
on word, meaning, style, metaphor and poetic language. And later he describes the good qualities
of true poetry. A good poetry is something which has a unique expression, meaning which
delights the readers. A poet can make a mere word unique with his creative talent. Words and
meanings are adorned in poetry and they appear as an ‘artistic turn of speech’.
There are different types of Vakrokti suggested by Kuntaka in his Vakrokti-Jivitam Those are,
Phonetic figurativeness (Varnavinyasa Vakrata), Lexical figurativeness (padapurvardha Vakrata),
Grammatical figurativeness (pratyaya vakrata), Sentential Figurativeness (Vakyavakrata),
Contextual figurativeness (Prakarana vakrata), and Compositional figurativeness (Prabandha
vakrata).
Kuntaka’s Idea of Sahitya:🌸
Kuntaka explains the idea of Sahitya in his Vakrokti-Jivitam. He said,
Sahityamanayo Shobhashalitang Prati kapyasou
Anyunyatiriktatwamanoharinyabasthiti
Kuntaka’s above statement means that the mode of union is literature. When the word and the
meaning exists together and united with each other but do not lose their own identity,
characteristics but their union is so heavenly, so spiritual that do not cross the limits of each
other’s boundary then they together create the beauty and that beauty is Sahitya (literature). As
word and meaning meet with each other in a heavenly mode, there is no need for additional
claims of Alamkara or ornament in literature. Hence, Kuntaka did not feel there was any need for
Alamkara as a necessary component of literature.
Marga or Riti or Style and Guna:🌸
According to Kuntaka, 'Sukumara Marga’ is an essential condition of Kavya. Beside
Sukumara Marga, he talks about Bichitra Marga and he explains the characteristics in ten
Karikas. There are another Marga which is created by the characteristics of both the above said
Margas, and that is Ubhayatmak Marga.
Kuntaka talks about four kinds of Guna. Those are Madhurya, Prasada, Lavanya and
Abhijatya. For example he took references from Kalidasa. Later he mentioned two more Guna,
Auchitya and Soubhagya and these Gunas are common to all the above three margas.
Conclusion:🌸
Kuntaka after Bhatrihari, is the most brilliant and rare talent who contributed enormously on
the discourse of language study and also on the discourse of poetic language or literary language.
In his understanding vakrokti is the vaidagdhyam bhangi or it is deviated or alternative to the
speech act of the common people. With his study of poetic language he suggested the how of the
birth of beauty. He is that genius in Indian poetics who extends himself from language study to
aesthetics to adaptation theory, to translation theory what we deal with now can be rooted in
Kuntaka’s work also. The different types of Vakrokti that he classified are methods of criticism
of literature also. It is actually literary discourse proposed by him. He suggested a complete
structure of literary study. But not only limited into that he was concerned about the reader’s
response, though it is the major concern of all the Sanskrit rhetoricians. Vakrokti is
Kavi-Kushalata, art and talent of the poet and poet’s creativity is termed as
“Kavi-vyapara-vakrata, or art in the poetic process and this is the primary condition of a
successful poetry” and therefore rasanubhuti comes into the mind of Sahridaya or the readers
(Rao, Sreenivas;). Kuntaka has balanced between the poet’s role and reader’s role in appreciation
of poetry. The point of view of the poet and the reader’s accomplishment both are necessary for
the emergence of rasanubhuti, according to Kuntaka.
Eassy:🌸
Bharata’s Natyashastra is the oldest treatise on Rasa theory. The idea of Rasa in drama or
poetry is an unique creation of Indian Dramaturgy and rhetorics. The translation of this word
‘Rasa’ is also very difficult as it is an enjoyment or experience in the mind of the sympathetic
audience or reader. It is an individual experience brought through the expression of Bhava.
The Rasa is created or promoted in the mind of a spectator by the Bhava being expressed.
These two the Rasa and Bhava are interdependent as Rasa is not created without Bhava and
Bhava has no existence if Rasa not promoted. Bhava can be considered as the physical body
and Rasa being its soul. Bhavas, the emotions has no meaning in the absence of Rasa.
Bhavas, the emotions represented in the performance get translated into emotional state of
experience in the minds of spectator, so called Rasika and makes the presentation thoroughly
enjoyable.
The eleven elements that are described as the essence of Natyashastra by Bharata, but Rasa
and Bhava are the main aesthetic performances in provoking a desired emotion that leads to
open the heart and mind of spectator to understand the message and idea of the poet. Rasa
and Bhava occupy a significant treatment by Bharata. Which are followed by other nine
Abhinaya, Dharmi, Vritti, Pravritti, Siddhi, Svara, Aatodya, Gana and Ranga that embellish a
dramatic presentation.
Answering the inquiries made by the sages about Rasa and Bhava, Bharata puts in his
Natyashastra as the combination of Vibhava, anbhava and Vyabhichari Bhavas creates the
Rasa. Rasa is a produce in the minds of Sympathetic audience as a result of configuration of the determinants, the consequents and the transitory moods. (Vibha vanubhava Vyabhichari
samyogat Rasanishpattih - N.S.VI) Which are known as causes, effects and auxiliaries in the
spoken language. The latent emotion that comes to be manifested by all the above things is
called as Rasa like the food becomes relished with the mixture of different spices, Rasa
accompanied by these Bhavas become the source of Ananda. (Yathhi Nana
Vyanjanaushadhidravya Samyogat Rasanishpattih, talah
Nanabhavopagramatrasanishpattih....Sthayinah bhavah rasatramapnuvanti - NS VI, Prose
passage). Then what are these Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicharam Bhavas? Bharata
explains in detail. Vibhavas - the determinants are the causes. As many things are
Vibhavyate (determined) by this through words, Gestures and the representation of the
Temperament,is named Vibhava. ( Determinants )
1 (1. N.S.VII-4 (translation M.M.Gosh)
P.119.) They create an illusionary reality when the character is being presented in a particular
environment. When a spectator or a reader watches or reads a drama or poem, the basic
emotion, (that is already exists) are excited by these Vibhavas - the determinants or the
causes and leads to Anubhava - the consequentor the effect. Because they Anubhavyate
(made to feel) things by means of words, gestures it is called Anubhava and it is related to
words as well as to gestures and movements of major and minor limbs.2(2. N.S.VII-5
Translation M.M.Gosh). This will be a voluntary expression like smile, shedding tears,
laughter, scary looks, angry looks etc.
Thus Vibhavas and Anubhavas create a State (Sattva). The Vibhavas are two types
Alambana Vibhavas and Uddipana Vibhavas. Hero and Heroines are Alambana and seasons,
flowers etc are the Uddipana. The emotions, the cause of excitation retained in the mind of a
sympathetic spectator/reader till the Rasa is experienced is called Sthayibhava or Static
emotion such as love etc is of eight types. The physical involuntary expression follow the
identification of the emotion of sympathetic mind are called Satvika Bhavas or responsive
emotions like the glances, sweating, horripulation etc. It can be said that Satvika Bhavas are
Anubhavas the consequents, but Satavika bhavas are involuntary actions in an exalted state
and Anubhavas are voluntary expressions. These are again eight types. The emotions those
do not have stability like Vibhavas, Sthayibhavas, but rise, exist and vanish quickly are called
Sanchari bhavas - the transitory emotions. These are passing emotions which are compared
to that of waves of the ocean promotes the creation of Rasa in the sympathetic mind and
submerge into the same. They contribute to the creation of Rasa and retains till the
realization of Rasa. These are 33 in number.
Vibhavas ( the determinants ) can be called as Sthayibhava as they are cause of excitation.
The actor with concentrated mind can produce whatever the effect the situation demands.
Anubhavas may be imitated simply by the practice of acting, but the responsiveness (Satva)
is a mental state of an actor (inner feelings) expressed with the bodily actions ( external
movements ).They are eight in number. (1) Sveda - Perspiration (2) Stambha - Stupefaction
(3) Romancha – horripilation(4) Svarabhanga - change in tone (5) Vepathu - trembling (6)
Vaivanya - discoloration (7) Asru - tears (8) Pralaya - Swoon.
Vyabhicharibhavas - (the transitory emotions) are also called Sancharibhavas only flash
momentarily and do not stay for a long time. The mind and body when subjected to an
emotional impact, the mind experiences a series of emotions. They traverse between the
actor and spectator, make the static emotion (Sthayi bhava)stronger and make the mind
respond favorably to the experience of Rasa. They are 33 in number (1) Nirveda - aversion,
(2) glani - depression (3) Sankaa - doubt, (4) Asuyaa - envy (5) Mada - intoxication (6)
Srama - weariness (7) Aalasya - indolence (8) dainya - piteousness (9) Chintaa - sorrow (10)
Moha - passion (11) Smritti - recollection (12) Dhriti - courage (13) Vrida - shame, (14)
Chapalatha - waywardness (15) Harsha - Joy (16) Avega - agitation (17) Jadata - stupor (18)
Garva - arrogance (19) Vishada - despair (20) Antsukya - inquisitiveness (21) Nidra - sleep
(22) Apsnaa - epilepsy (23) Supta - dream (24) Vibodha - awakening (25) Amansha -
indignation (26) Avahitta - concealment (27) Ugrata - ferocity (28) Mati - Knowledge (29)
Vyadhi - Sickness (30) Unmada - insanity (31) Marana - death (32) Traasa - fright and (33)
Vitanka - deliberation.
All these Bhavas are subordinates to the principal Rasa. The sentiment is caused by the
Vibhavas, expressed by the Anubhavas and nourished by Sanchari bhavas becomes Rasa. In
an ordinary world, due to woman, moon etc Rati is produced. It is expressed with glances etc
and enriched by Glani, Niveda etc. When the Sthayibhava, the permanent mood is
experienced due to Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyabhichari then it becomes Rasa. According to
Bharata the Rasa, Rasa is only Lowkika Rasa. He explains it on the analogy of Paka Rasa.
When we mix food made of rice wheat etc with some Vyanjanas (spices) a peculiar taste like
Shadabha is produced which gives pleasure to the eater. Similarly with the help of Verbal,
physical and mental gesticulation Rasa gives pleasure, Joy to the Sahridaya (sympathetic
Spectator).Sahridaya as described by Bharata is a person “who can watch the dramatic
performance with all his senses undisturbed, is pure and honest, is expert in judging the pros
and cons, who can ignore a fault and lovingly appreciate merit of the dramatic performance The greatness of literature and the ability of the actor depend on how best he can achieve and
produce rasa in the mind of the spectator/reader. Hence they are called Natya Rasa which is
very important in any kind of art presentation.
Bharata has classified Rasas into 8 - 1. Srinagaara-amorous, 2.Haasya- humorous, 3. Karunapathetic, 4. Raudra-furious 5.Viira-valorous, 6. Bhayaanaka-horrifi, 7. Biibhatsa- repugnant,
and 8. Adbhuta- wondrous. ( Sringarahaasyakarunaa
raudraviirabhyayaanakaah|bhiibhatsaadbhutasanjnaachetyashtau naatye rasaah smritaah|| NS
VI 15 ) The eight static emotions that are responsible for these eight rasa-s, in order are - 1.
Love,2.Mirth, 3. Grief , 4.Anger, 5. Enthusiasm, 6.Fear , 7. Disgust and 8.Surprise .(
ratirhaasaschashokascakrodhotsaahaubhayamtatha|jugupsavismayascheti
sthaayibhavaahprakirtitaah|| NS VI 17 )
There are four main Rasas Sringara ,Raudra,Bhayanaka and Vira. Hasya is produced out of
Sringara.Karuna is from Raudra, Bhibhatsa is from Bhayanaka and Adbhuta is from
Vira.(Sringaraaddhi bhavedhaaso raudraaccakarunnorasah | viraaschdhbhutotpattihi
bhibhatsaatccabhayanakah NS VI 39) Bharata has indicated the corresponding colours and
presiding deities for all the eight Rasas.Dark,Pale ,Grey ,Red ,Fair ,Black Blue , and Yellow
are the colours of eight Rasas respectively. Vishnu, Pramatha, Rudra,Yama, Indra,Kala,
Mahakala, and Brahma are thepresiding deities.Though the Natyashastra do not make any
clear acceptance of Santarasa but Bharata has recognized it as a sentiment with Sama–
calmness as the dormant emotion. This rasa was accepted by later authors on alankaraspoetics after a long discussion and therorized by Abhinavagupta. Subsequently the
expressionNavarasa (the nine Rasas ) came into existence.
Each Rasa has again several sub divisions :
Sringaara Rasa has two sub-divisions – Sambhoga-union and Vipralambha-separation, in
which anga - the action, nepathya-the costume and vak-the speech vary correspondingly.Rati
is the sthayi bhava, the hero and heroine are Alambana Vibhavas the painting,the beautiful
mansion, garlands moon-light etc are the Uddiipana vibhavas. the glances, smile, throbbing
of the shoulder etc are the Anubhvas. Except indolence, cruelty and disgust all the remaining
nirveda etc are the Sanchari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Rati the sthayi
bhava,(static emotion)becomes Sringara Rasa.
Hasya Rasa has six subdivisions -1.Smita-gentle smile, 2. Hasita-smile, 3. Vihasita-laughter,
4. Upahasita-laughter with riducule,5. Apahasita-uproarious laughter and 6. Atihasitaconvulsive laughter. Hasya Rasa is also governed by variations in action, costume and
speech as in the case of Sringaara rasa.Hasa is the permanent mood, oddity in speech
,ornaments, dress, and body, imitating others are the Vibhavas. throbbing of lips, nose,
cheeks contradicting eyes etc are the Anubhavas. Dissimilation, sleep etc are Sancharibhavas.
When all these conditions exist,Hasa the sthayi bhava,(static emotion)becomes Hasya Rasa.
(NS VI) This is of two kinds 1.self centered, 2 centered in others.
Karuna Rasa has three subdivisions 1.Manasika 2.vachika 3. Angika caused due to
separation from loved ones,damage to virtue, loss of wealth etc.Shoka the sthayi bhava
affliction of a curse, separation from the dear ones, captivity, loss of wealth, banishment are
the Vibhavas in Karuna rasa. It is expressed with drooping the limbs, shedding tears, nirveda,
glani,autsukya etc are the Vyabhichari bhavas. When these conditions exist there
KarunaRasa will be evoked. ( NS VI) Manasika is expressed by releasing long sighs, looking
at the sky etc, Vachika is expressed by haha’ sounds and weeping, Angika is expressed by
shaking head, moving hands, falling on the ground etc.
Raudra Rasa is expressed through action, costume and speech.Krodha-anger is the sthayi
bhava,wicked people Rakshasas, demons fighting, anger, harsh words etc are the Vibhavas,
red eyes, knitting eyebrows, striking, pounding the weapons etc are consequents. Avega,
Amarsha ,Utsaha, Aurgya( ugrata ),envy,trembling, sweating etc are the Vyabhichari and
Sativika bhavas. When these conditions exist Raudra Rasa is produced. (NS VI)anger is of
four types directed towards enemy, towards servant,towards lover and towards an elder.
Vira Rasa has three sub-divisons viz., Daanavira-heroism in charity, Dharmavira –heroism in
virtue and Yuddhavira heroism in war.Utsaha is its permanent mood , steadiness, valour,
courage strength etc are the Vibhavas, change in speech, facial colour, horripulation etc are
the Anubhavas , mati, agitation, arrogance, anger, recollection etc are the Vyabhichari
bhavas, When all these conditions exist, Utsaha the sthayi bhava,(static emotion)is called
Vira Rasa. (NS VI)
Bhayaanaka Rasa has three subdivisions 1.Vyaja-fictitious horror, 2. Aparadha-horror due to
a grievous mistake 3. Vitrasita-horror due to fear complex. Bhaya-fear is the permanent
mood, sight of forest, tiger, owls ,demons , ghosts etc death or captivity of relative etc are the
Vibhavas, throbbing eyes, hands, feet, stupefaction, loss of facial colour ,and voice etc are the Anubhavas, waywardness, fright, epilepsy, insanity, loss of voice, death etc are
Vyabhichari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Bhaya becomes Bhayanaka Rasa. ( NS
VI )Bhaya-fear is of two kinds Akritrima-real and kritrima-assumed.
BhibhatsaRasa has two subdivisions -1.Shuddhaja-the exciting and 2.Udvegaja-the inflicting.
The exciting is created by seeing disgusting insects etc., and the inflicting is created by
looking at blood, intestines etc.Jugupsa is the permanent mood ,hearing unpleasant, abusive,
offensive words, seeing or discussing harmful things are the Vibhavas, stopping all
movements of the body, narrowing down and twisting of the mouth vomiting , spitting etc are
the Vyabhichari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Bhibhatsa Rasa will be produced.
Adbhuta Rasa has two subdivisions -1.Divyaja- the exquisite and 2.Anandaja the
pleasurable.Vismaya is the permanent mood, sight of heavenly beings, aerial vehicles,
attainment of desired object, seeing illusionary and magical art etc are the determinants, wide
opening and gazing with unlinking eyes horripulation, shaking the body with joy, uttering
praising words etc are the consequents. Stupefaction, perspiration, tears, agitation, hurry
,inactivity etc are the transitory moods. When all these conditions exist, Adbhuta Rasa will be
produced. (NS VI) Divyaja is produced by the sight of celestial things and Anandaja is
produced by happiness or joy.
Santa Rasa is yet a ninth, not mentioned by Bharata, but has been accepted as one of the
Rasa’s during later periods. Sama or the placid static emotion gives rise to Santa
Rasa.Nirveda (detachment)is the permanent mood, spiritual knowledge, detachment towards
worldly pleasures, going to places of pilgrimage devotion towards God and teachers etc are
the Vibhavas ,yama, niyama etc yogic postures, wearing acetic garments, kindness towards
all the beings etc are the Anubhavas. depression, aversion, knowledge , recollection courage
,stupefaction etc are the Sanchari bhavas When all these conditions prevail Shanta Rasa is
produced. (NS VI)
Bharata has stated that the main independent Rasa-s are four - the amorous, the valorous, the
furious, and the repugnant; and that the remaining four rasa-s re- dependent - the humorous
on the amorous, the pathetic on the furious, the wondrous on the valorous, and the horrific on
the repugnant (NS-VI-39).
All the later writers accepted the Bharata’s principle on Rasa. Only his commentators tried to
put their own views and points regarding the philosophical and psycholog The commentators are Bhatta lollata, Sri Sankhuka, Bhatta nayaka and Abhinavagupta. The
theories of first three scholars can be known only through Abhinava’s commentary
Abhinavabharati, and through some later writers like Mammata, Hemachandra, Vipradasa
etc. A brief account of the summaries of the theories of the commentators on Natya shastra
is as follws.
Bhatta-lollata : The first author in this path is Bhatta-lollata. He appears to be the first
author to attempt a psychological analysis of Rasa. His theory is as follows. Rasa is
produced when Sthayibhava is associated with Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas.
The mental condition named Sthayi is produced by the vibhavas anubhavas and
vyabhicaribhavas. Considering how vyabhicaribhavas which are also mental states, coexist
long with sthayibhava which is also a mental state, he feels that sthayi which is a dormant
state can coexist along with vyabhicaribhava, also a dormant state. The sthayibhava originally
exists only in the Anukarya ( Ramadi ) but as the actor is identified with the Anukarya (as
Rama) by the audience hence it is thought that Rasa is also exists in the actor himself. Only
when it is conceived like this it is termed as Rasa. The Nata imitates the original hero and
becomes the source of charm to the audience. The spectator is delighted when he finds the
actor show the same mental attitude which originally belonged to the person whose part he is
enacting .
His theory is known as the theory of production (utpatti vada). According to this theory Rasa
is in the Nata and is produced (karya) in action. Vibhavas are karanas. Anubhavas are
Gamakas. Vybhicaribhavas are Posakas.
That means - with the vibhavas Sita etc., Rasa is produced in Rama. It is understood with
Anubhavas and enriched with vybabhicaribhavas. Thus the sentiment is generated in the
personated character and secondarily recognized in the personating actor.
According to this theory ‘Samyoga’ means Utpadya-Utpadaka, Gamya-Gamaka and PosyaPosaka. ‘Nishpatti’ means Utpatti, Abhivyakti and Pusti. In other words, with theUtpadakas
(Vibhavas) Sthayibhavas like Rati etc. are produced. It is understood ( Gamya ) by
Anubhavas like Kataaksha, with the Posakas (Vyabhicaribhavas), it is nourished and Utpatti,
Abhivyakti and Pusti of Rasa will be produced.
Sri Sankhuka :The above theory of Bhatta Lollata was refuted by Sri Sanikhuka. His theory
is based on inference and is called Anumitivada, and is affiliated to the Nyaya School.
According to his theory Rasa is inferred to exist in the actor though not present in him. The
actor with his training and constant practice represents the causes, effects and the auxiliaries
which are technically called Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyahicaribhavas respectively. Thus the
Sthayibhava like Rati etc. are inferred by the spectator as existing in the Nata. Thus sensed
by the audience, Sthayibhava adds to itself a peculiar charm and fully envelops into a
sentiment in the spectator. The spectator takes Nata as the hero Rama. This knowledge of
‘this is Rama’ is peculiar and different from Loukika Jnanas. This Jnana is the result of the
great skill of the Nata in the four kinds of Abhinayas. Here “Ramatva” is not in the Nata but
ascribed to him. In Natya, the artificial, imitation of Karanas, Karyas and Sahakarins are
brought into use and are called as Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyabhicaribhavas. These
Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas are presented by the actor and with his skilful imitations;
the spectator infers Rati etc sthayibhavas in the actor. In other words Rasa is the inference of
the Sthayi like Rati etc. This Anumiti ( inference ) is quite different from the other inferences
and gives pleasure with the actor’s skilful imitation and dressing etc. As the inference of Rasa
is in the spectator, Rasa can be understood resting with them only. Though the Sthayi is not
present in the actor, the spectator infers it is in the actor.
According to this doctrine ‘Samyoga’ means Gamya-gamaka bhava or Jnapya -Jnapakabhava
)
becomes Rasa. This theory is known as ‘Anumitivada’ (theory of inference).
This theory is refuted by BhattaNayaka.
Bhatta Nayaka : BhattaNayaka refutes both the theories of Bhatta-Lollata and Srisankhuka.
According to BhattaLollata Rasa is in Anukarya. According to SriSankhuka Rasa rests in
Anukartr (imitator that is the actor). But according to BhattaNayaka, the sentiment is neither
due to production ( utpatti nor due to apprehension (pratiti). He proposed a new theory in
which Rasa is in which Rasa is in Samajika. According to him Rasa is enjoyed through the
Vibhavas in relation with the enjoyer ( Bhojaka ) and is enjoyed ( Bhojya ).
His theory is as follows:The words have three different functions, namely, Abhida,
Bhavakatva (Bhavana) and Bhojakatva ( Bhoga ) Abhida is actual and direct denotation of
the word. With this function the ideas like Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas are
conveyed. Next comes the second function i.e. Bhavakatva. In this function the individual
traits are been removed and generalizes the Vibhavas etc happens. After thus Rasa is generalized its third function, namely, Bhojakatva happens. Here, the Satvaguna of the
spectator completely suppresses the Rajoguna and Tamoguna and makes him forget his
individuality. Thus enjoyment is described as a process of elevation similar to the
enlightened, self-sufficient, and blissful knowledge, arising from the prominence of the
attribute of goodness (satya) and is different from worldly pleasure.
Thus, according to BhattaNayaka, Rasa consists in the Sthayibhava or the permanent mood,
experienced in a generalized form in poetry and drama through the powers of Abhida,
Bhavakatva and enjoyed by a blissful process-Bhoga till it is raised to a state of pleasurable
philosophic meditation of Brahma.1(1.S.K.De, Sanskrit poetics, P.125)
This theory of BhattaNayaka is known as Bhuktivada. Here Samyoga means Bhavakatva,
Nishpatti means Asvadya or Bhukti, Vibhavas etc. which are Bhojakas. Rasa is Bhojya.
With the ( Bhojakas ) Vibhava etc., which are united together ( generalization –Bhavakatva )
the Rasa ( Bojya ) becomes relish able ( Bhukti) . Here the Rasa and its tools have a relation
of food and its consumer Bhojya Bhojaka bhava.
According to Abhinavagupta, BhattaLollata appears to be the first commentator on Bharata’s
Rasa Sutra who opined that Rasa is created in the character described in the play. Later, Sri
Sankuka, another commentator, contradicted BhttaLollata’s opinion and stated that rasa is
experienced by the actor alone. Still later, BhattaNaayaka, another reputed commentator,
condemned these two arguments outright and gave the opinion the Rasa is experienced by the
audience only as a result of the histrionic expression of an actor who portrays the emotions
pertaining to the character described in the play. This argument is closer to Bharata’s
explanation of Rasa Sutra. Although Abhinavagupta has agreed with the commentary of
Bhattanaayaka he was not convinced by the reasoning the BhattaNayaka. So, he examined
the views of all the three commentators in his commentary Abhinavabharatii ( Ch.VI ) and
established with analytical reasoning that Rasa is experienced only by the sympathetic
audience.According to Bharata the Rasa is only Loukika Rasa. He explains it on the analogy
of Pakarasa. When we mix food made of rice, wheat etc. with some Vyanjanas a peculiar
taste like Sadabha is produced. Similarly, with the help of verbal, physical and mental
gesticulations, Rasa gives pleasure, joy to the Sahrdaya (spectator) like pakarasa which gives pleasure to the eater. Hence, they are called Natyarasas, which are important in the
presentations.
According to Abhinavagupta in the minds of the spectators a particular emotion (Sthayi
Bhava) is already present in the form of Sanskara ( Vasana ). This inherent permanent mood
inferred from its Loukika causes Ex: women, garden remains in the heart of the appreciating
audience. This permanent mood depicted in a Kavya or presented in a Natya will have a
special power and thereby lose their individuality and some kind of Universalization is
affected. Such causes ( Karanas etc) were given special names like Vibhava etc. The
Vibhavas are generalized or impersonalized in the minds of the reader or the spectator
through the suggestive power of clever representation. Then the Sthayi which in the heart of
the Sahridaya in the form of Vasana arouses and Rasa get manifested by itself. His theory is
called as Abhvyaktivada.
In the world the love ( Rati) of Rama (hero) for Sita (heroine), Sita becomes Alambana,
moon etc. are Uddipanas, Asrupata etc. are Karyas, Cinta etc. are Sahakarins. All these
things with beautiful situations with meaningful words, gestures enter in to the heart of the
Sahridaya. They create a special power Bhava in him. By this power the Vibhavas Sita etc.
leave their individuality and appear to him in a generalized form. At this time they are called
as Aloukikas. These Vibhavas etc with the power of suggestion evokes the Rati etc. The
Sthayi bhavas those are present in the heart of Sahridaya in a subtle form. Thus Rasa is
manifested by the removal of enveloping obstacles and reveals something which already
exists.
This manifestation becomes the source of transcendent charm and is spoken as Rasa. This
Rasananda is said almost to be equivalent to the Philosophic bliss ( Brahmananda ).